Labels: home interior design trends round-up

Bedroom Design Ideas, Bedroom Interior Design

The bedroom is the space that we spend the most time in. Like it or not, we need to sleep to be able to function. So why not make it your personal haven with the use of interior decorating. This website provides bedroom interior design ideas for free. Sometimes it only takes a simple idea to get your creative juices flowing. Browse through the pictures and use the articles which provide advice to guide you through the ways to make a romantic bedroom using a canopy bed and how to create mood in your romantic bedroom. A simple process to create your own romantic bedroom.

	Bedroom Lighting Learn about bedroom lighting, a simple yet versatile room of the house to light.
	Bedroom Curtains & Blinds What styles of curtains and blinds work best in the bedroom.
	Bedroom Color & Walls Get ideas for the best bedroom wall colors and finishes.
	Bedroom Furniture & Storage Tips on bedroom furniture and storage systems.
	Bedroom Floors Learn about the types of flooring suitable for bedroom floors
	Bedroom Styles, Design & Decoration Look at some bedroom style critiques and see how you rate them - modern four poster, modern feature wall or zebra skin and red walls!
	Bedroom Makeovers See examples of simple bedroom makeovers.
	Bedroom Linen Learn about the small details that make our bedrooms comfortable like the different types of sheets and pillows that are available.
	Bedroom Photographs Get ideas for bedroom design from looking at photographs.
	Bedroom Resources Find interesting web sites on bedrooms here or add your own bedroom company information.

To find out how to make a romantic bedroom that suits you try some basic ideas for your romantic bedroom. We have an example of a simple bedroom that we find subtly romantic and show how you can change the look using different wall colors.

We haven't forgotten the little people in our lives, babies need to have a beautiful bedroom too! We show a basic baby's bedroom makeover using space planning and new soft furnishings to transform the nursery. We then use the same baby's bedroom and with the use of paint colors to the walls, create numerous different looks. This is a great way to see color ideas for a baby's nursery that you probably would never have thought of before. Simple ways to decorate them with mirrors and tablescapes and how to hang picture

Interior designers are creative, imaginative and artistic. They also need to be disciplined, organized and skilled business people. Combining knowledge with aesthetic vision, interior designers work with clients and other design professionals to develop design solutions that are safe, functional, attractive and meet the needs of the people using the space.

As is the case with any career, the practice of interior design can be rewarding and fulfilling if hard work prevails. Excelling at interior design requires energy, technical proficiency, vision and dedication.

Keys to Success

As members of a service profession, interior designers’ fortunes depend on their ability to satisfy clients. Thus, they must understand artistic and technical requirements of a project, interpersonal communication, and management strategies.

• Artistic and Technical Requirements
  Interior designers must know how to plan a space and how to present that plan visually so that it can be communicated to the client. Interior designers must also know about the materials and products that will be used to create and furnish the space, and how texture, color, lighting and other factors combine and interact to make a space. In addition, interior designers must understand the structural requirements of their plans, the health and safety issues, building codes, and many other technical aspects.
  

• Interpersonal Communications
  Interior designers must be comfortable meeting and dealing with many kinds of people. They must communicate clearly and effectively, as well as be attentive listeners. Because they often must work with architects, contractors and other service providers, interior designers need to be both good team leaders and good team players. They must be willing to negotiate and mediate when necessary to solve problems.
  

Management Strategies
Interior designers must have excellent time and project management abilities since they frequently work on more than one project at a time under demanding deadlines. Interior designers must understand business planning, and they need to know how to sell their ideas to clients, create informative and persuasive proposals and presentations, and maintain good client relationships

	Sign up for free interior design tips, learning couldn't be easier. You can change the look of a bedroom by simply using Linens and Bedding.
	You can source a number of educational Interior Design Articles that will help your decorate your home like a professional, find out how you can beautify your House and Garden, make Home Improvement, or start with some Home Decorating
	Makeovers are the fun part of interior decorating, they often only require simple changes to make big differences to the appearance of interiors. We have examples of bedroom makeovers, bathroom makeovers, kitchen makeovers, living room makeovers, dining and study makeovers and house and garden makeovers.

	If you need to brush up on your interior decorating skills, or if you are starting from scratch then don't forget to sign on for our free e-course in interior decorating, Using these prompts will ensure that you can collate all your free interior design ideas and turn them into practical design concepts and developed ideas for your projects.
	Free Home Decorating Color eCourse
	Free Curtain Design eCourse We have had so much positive feedback of inspired creativity and upgrading in skill level that you would be crazy to miss out on such an opportunity for moving yourself forward in the industry for free.

See our Glossary for interior design and decorating terms, meanings and architectural definitions.

Interior Design and Interior Decorating Ideas

The interior design industry revolves around creativity and the use of multiple ideas. At interiordezine.com you will find a web site full of useful information that will inspire you to generate your own interior design ideas for free and at one website. It is so easy because this site covers bathrooms, color, bedrooms, soft furnishings, furniture history, makeovers, lighting, construction, interior design and decoration tips and much more.

Life is not meant to be a struggle, and happiness can be found within a life lived with meaning. A person's true nature must be nourished to live a happy life. Happiness follows when an individual discovers a personal path to spiritual fulfillment. Vitality grows from a healthy diet and a healthy mind.
Instructions:

1. Step 1

   Start living a life of meaning. Life is far too short to spend it in endless futile frustration. Change is the key to self-realization. Leave behind a fear of change and embrace the transforming power of the universe. Invest each day with powerful individual importance.

2. Step 2

   Grow spiritually healthy by nourishing the soul with the ideas of wise individuals. Great thinkers abound and wise teachers illuminate a fresh path to follow. Read the teachings of other cultures. It is far too easy and comfortable to stay with the familiar and live a life of complacency.

3. Step 3

   Examine the common events of each day. Take note of the parts of the day when time slows down. These are periods of stress and frustration. Stress is often self-generating. During those moments of stress, breathe deeply three times and hold each breath for 10 seconds before exhaling. This breaks the cycle of stress and calms the mind.

4. Step 4

   Explore one's inner thoughts and beliefs. Many of the emotional and mental ties that bind people to a boring existence are placed there by external forces, such as parents, school, neighbors or employers. Discover the truth within; question if fears are real or unfounded. Meditation is a fine method for relaxation and self-discovery.

5. Step 5

   Eat healthy to live a long, fulfilling life. Good health depends as much on proper eating as it does on medical attention. Reduce the amounts of fat, meats and junk. Increase the amounts of vegetables and add variety. A healthier diet is the key to vigorous longevity. Drink more water during the day as well and reduce the dependency on caffeine and other artificial stimulants.

Life is too short and everyone should live their life the way they want to live it. Everyone should remember the phrase "Carpe Diem" or "Seize the Day". This article can give you ideas on how to live life to the fullest.
Instructions:

1. Step 1

   Face your fears. Don't let it hold you back. Whatever your fears are recognize it and confront them.

2. Step 2

   Find your passion and embrace it. Do what you love to do.

3. Step 3

   Take chances. Try to throw caution to the wind. Don't live life too seriously or cautiously. Be bold and risk it.

4. Step 4

   Follow excitement. Try to find things that excite you and pursue it. Make your life an exciting adventure after another.

5. Step 5

   Get out of your comfort zone. Try to break free and do something out of the ordinary. Try something new for the first time.

6. Step 6
   

   Travel. Find a way to make that special trip or vacation. Use the time to see the world, meet new people, and see the unfamiliar sights.

7. Step 7

   Rediscover yourself. Figure out what's important to you, your interests, passions, and values. Focus on your life and make the time for them.

Labels: Taylor's College Interior Design students winning video

Labels: Interior Design Ideas Episode 2

A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building. There is no official definition or height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper. Most cities define the term empirically; even a building of 80 meters (262 feet) may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes above its built environment and changes the overall skyline.

Definition

The word "skyscraper" originally was a nautical term referring to a tall mast or its main sail on a sailing ship. The term was first applied to buildings in the late 19th century as a result of public amazement at the tall buildings being built in Chicago and New York City. The traditional definition of a skyscraper began with the "first skyscraper", a steel-framed ten-storey building. Chicago's now demolished ten-storey steel-framed Home Insurance Building (1885) is considered the "first skyscraper".

The structural definition of the word skyscraper was refined later by architectural historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multi-storey buildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton—-as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building. Philadelphia's City Hall, completed in 1901, still holds claim as the world's tallest load-bearing masonry structure at 167 m (548 ft). The steel frame developed in stages of increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in Chicago and New York advancing the technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today, however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built almost entirely with reinforced concrete.^[1] Pumps and storage tanks maintain water pressure at the top of skyscrapers.

A loose convention in the United States and Europe now draws the lower limit of a skyscraper at 150 meters (500 ft).^[2] A skyscraper taller than 300 meters (984 ft) may be referred to as supertall. Shorter buildings are still sometimes referred to as skyscrapers if they appear to dominate their surroundings.

The somewhat arbitrary term skyscraper should not be confused with the slightly less arbitrary term highrise, defined by the Emporis Standards Committee as "...a multi-storey structure with at least 12 floors or 35 meters (115 feet) in height."^[3] Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a more significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high rises but some other tall structures, such as towers.

The word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. The skyscraper, in name and social function, is a modern expression of the age-old symbol of the world center or axis mundi: a pillar that connects earth to heaven and the four compass directions to one another.^[4]

History

Before the 19th century

Modern skyscrapers are built with materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and granite, and routinely utilize mechanical equipment such as water pumps and elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare, as having great numbers of stairs to climb was impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above 50 m (164 ft).

The tallest building in ancient times was the Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt, which was 146 metres (480 ft) tall and was built in the 26th century BC. Its height was not surpassed for thousands of years, possibly until the 14th century AD with the construction of Lincoln Cathedral (though its height is disputed),^[5] which in turn was not surpassed in height until the Washington Monument in 1884. However, being uninhabited buildings, none of these buildings actually complies with the definition of a skyscraper.

High-rise apartment buildings already flourished in antiquity: ancient Roman insulae in Rome and other imperial cities reached up to 10 and more stories,^[6] some with more than 200 stairs.^[7] Several emperors, beginning with Augustus (r. 30 BC-14 AD), attempted to establish limits of 20-25 m for multi-storey buildings, but met with only limited success.^[8][9] The lower floors were typically occupied by either shops or wealthy families, while the upper stories were rented out to the lower classes.^[6] Surviving Oxyrhynchus Papyri indicate that seven-storey buildings even existed in provincial towns, such as in 3rd century AD Hermopolis in Roman Egypt.^[10]

The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers. Wealthy families built these towers for defensive purposes and as status symbols. The residential Towers of Bologna in the 12th century, for example, numbered between 80 to 100 at a time, the largest of which (known as the "Two Towers") rise to 97.2 metres (319 ft). In Florence, a law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings should be reduced to a height of less than 26 m, the regulation immediately put into effect.^[11] Even medium-sized towns at the time such as San Gimignano are known to have featured 72 towers up to 51 m height.^[11]

The medieval Egyptian city of Fustat housed many high-rise residential buildings, which Al-Muqaddasi in the 10th century described as resembling minarets. Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described some of them rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top floor complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating them.^[12] Cairo in the 16th century had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants.^[13] An early example of a city consisting entirely of high-rise housing is the 16th-century city of Shibam in Yemen. Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses,^[14] each one rising 5 to 11 storeys high,^[15] with each floor being an apartment occupied by a single family. The city was built in this way in order to protect it from Bedouin attacks.^[14] Shibam still has the tallest mudbrick buildings in the world, with many of them over 100 feet (30 m) high,^[16] and the tallest of them (a minaret) standing at over 175 feet (53 m).^[17]

An early modern example of high-rise housing was in 17th-century Edinburgh, Scotland, where a defensive city wall defined the boundaries of the city. Due to the restricted land area available for development, the houses increased in height instead. Buildings of 11 stories were common, and there are records of buildings as high as 14 stories. Many of the stone-built structures can still be seen today in the old town of Edinburgh. The oldest iron framed building in the world is The Flaxmill (also locally known as the "Maltings"), in Shrewsbury, England. Built in 1797, it is seen as the "grandfather of skyscrapers”, since its fireproof combination of cast iron columns and cast iron beams developed into the modern steel frame that made modern skyscrapers possible. Unfortunately, it lies derelict and needs much investment to keep it standing. On 31 March 2005, it was announced that English Heritage would buy the Flaxmill so that it could be redeveloped.

Early skyscrapers

The first skyscraper was the ten-storey Home Insurance Building in Chicago, built in 1884–1885. While its height is not considered very impressive today, it was at that time. The architect, Major William Le Baron Jenney, created the first load-bearing structural frame. In this building, a steel frame supported the entire weight of the walls, instead of load-bearing walls carrying the weight of the building, which was the usual method. This development led to the "Chicago skeleton" form of construction. After Jenney's accomplishment the sky was truly the limit as far as building was concerned.

Sullivan's Wainwright Building in St. Louis, 1891, was the first steel-framed building with soaring vertical bands to emphasize the height of the building, and is, therefore, considered by some to be the first true skyscraper.

Most early skyscrapers emerged in the land-strapped areas of Chicago, London, and New York toward the end of the 19th century. A land boom in Melbourne, Australia between 1888-1891 spurred the creation of a significant number of early skyscrapers, though none of these were steel reinforced and few remain today. Height limits and fire restrictions were later introduced. London builders soon found building heights limited due to a complaint from Queen Victoria, rules that continued to exist with few exceptions until the 1950s. Concerns about aesthetics and fire safety had likewise hampered the development of skyscrapers across continental Europe for the first half of the twentieth century (with the notable exceptions of the 26-storey Boerentoren in Antwerp, Belgium, built in 1932, and the 31-storey Torre Piacentini in Genoa, Italy, built in 1940). After an early competition between New York City and Chicago for the world's tallest building, New York took the lead by 1895 with the completion of the American Surety Building, leaving New York with the title of tallest building for many years. New York City developers competed among themselves, with successively taller buildings claiming the title of "world's tallest" in the 1920s and early 1930s, culminating with the completion of the Chrysler Building in 1930 and the Empire State Building in 1931, the world's tallest building for forty years. The first completed World Trade Center tower became the world's tallest building in 1972 for two years. That changed with the completion of the Sears Tower (later renamed the Willis Tower) in Chicago in 1974, which became the world's tallest building for several decades.

Modern skyscrapers

From the 1930s onwards, skyscrapers also began to appear in Latin America (São Paulo, Caracas, Mexico City) and in Asia (Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila, Singapore, Mumbai, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Taipei, Bangkok). Immediately after World War II, the Soviet Union planned eight massive skyscrapers dubbed "Stalin Towers" for Moscow; seven of these were eventually built. The rest of Europe also slowly began to permit skyscrapers, starting with Madrid, in Spain, during the 1950s. Finally, skyscrapers also began to be constructed in cities of Africa, the Middle East and Oceania (mainly Australia) from the late 1950s.

No city in the world has more completed individual free-standing buildings over 492 ft (150 m) than New York City.^[18]. However, Hong Kong has the most in the entire world^[19] if one counts individually the multiple towers that rise from a common podium (as Emporis does), in buildings that rise several stories as a single structure before splitting into two or more columns of floors. The number of skyscrapers in Hong Kong will continue to increase, due to a prolonged highrise building boom and high demand for office and housing space in the area. A new building complex in Kowloon contains several mixed-use towers (hotel-shops-residential), one of which, the International Commerce Center, will be 118 stories tall.

In the early 1960s structural engineer Fazlur Khan realized that the rigid steel frame structure that had "dominated tall building design and construction so long was not the only system fitting for tall buildings", marking "the beginning of a new era of skyscraper revolution in terms of multiple structural systems."^[20] His central innovation in skyscraper design and construction was the idea of the "tube" structural system, including the "framed tube", "trussed tube", and "bundled tube".^[21] These systems allowed far greater economic efficiency,^[22] and also allowed efficient skyscrapers to take on various shapes, no longer needing to be box-shaped.^[23] Over the next fifteen years, many towers were built by Khan and the "Second Chicago School",^[24] including the massive 442-meter (1,451-foot) Willis Tower.^[25] Chicago is currently undergoing an epic construction boom that will greatly add to the city's skyline. Since 2000, at least 40 buildings at a minimum of 50 stories high have been built or planned.^[26] The Chicago Spire, Trump International Hotel and Tower, Waterview Tower, Mandarin Oriental Tower, 29-39 South LaSalle, Park Michigan, and Aqua are some of the more notable projects currently underway in the city that invented the skyscraper. Chicago, Hong Kong, and New York City, otherwise known as the "the big three," are recognized in most architectural circles as having the most compelling skylines in the world. Other large cities that are currently experiencing major building booms involving skyscrapers include Shanghai in China, Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, and Miami, which now is third in the United States.^[27]

History of tallest skyscrapers

At the beginning of the 20th century, New York City was a center for the Beaux-Arts architectural movement, attracting the talents of such great architects as Stanford White and Carrere and Hastings. As better construction and engineering technology became available as the century progressed, New York and Chicago became the focal point of the competition for the tallest building in the world. Each city's striking skyline has been composed of numerous and varied skyscrapers, many of which are icons of 20th century architecture:

• The Flatiron Building, standing 285 ft (87 m) high, was one of the tallest buildings in the city upon its completion in 1902, made possible by its steel skeleton. It was one of the first buildings designed with a steel framework, and to achieve this height with other construction methods of that time would have been very difficult.

• The Woolworth Building, a neo-Gothic "Cathedral of Commerce" overlooking City Hall, was designed by Cass Gilbert. At 792 feet (241 m), it became the world's tallest building upon its completion in 1913, an honor it retained until 1930, when it was overtaken by 40 Wall Street.

• That same year, the Chrysler Building took the lead as the tallest building in the world, scraping the sky at 1,046 feet (319 m).^[28] Designed by William Van Alen, an art deco masterpiece with an exterior crafted of brick,^[29] the Chrysler Building continues to be a favorite of New Yorkers to this day.^[30]

• The Empire State Building, the first building to have more than 100 floors (it has 102), was completed the following year. It was designed by Shreve, Lamb and Harmon in the contemporary Art Deco style. The tower takes its name from the nickname of New York State. Upon its completion in 1931, it took the top spot as tallest building, and at 1,472 feet (448 m) to the very top of the antenna, towered above all other buildings until 1973.

• The World Trade Center was completed in 1973 and consisted of two tall towers and several smaller buildings. For a short time, the first of the two towers was the world's tallest building. Upon completion, the towers stood for twenty-eight years, until the September 11, 2001 attacks destroyed the structures. Various governmental entities, financial firms, and law firms called the towers home.

• The Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) was completed in 1974, one year after the World Trade Center, and surpassed it as the world's tallest building. It was the first building to employ the "bundled tube" structural system, designed by Fazlur Khan.^[23] The building was not surpassed in height until the Petronas Towers were constructed in 1998, but remained the tallest in some categories until the Burj Dubai, currently under construction, surpassed it in all categories. It is currently the tallest building in the United States.

Momentum in setting records passed from the United States to other nations in 1997 with the opening of the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The record for world's tallest building remained in Asia with the opening of Taipei 101 in Taipei, Taiwan, in 2004. A number of architectural records, including that of the world's tallest building, will reside in the Middle East from 2009 with the opening of the Burj Dubai in Dubai, UAE.

This geographical transition is accompanied by a change in approach to skyscraper design. For much of the twentieth century large buildings such as the Willis Tower and World Trade Center (New York) took the form of simple geometrical shapes. This reflected the "international style" or modernist philosophy shaped by Bauhaus architects early in the century. By the 1990s skyscraper design began to exhibit postmodernist influences. The newest record setters, though modern, incorporate traditional architectural features associated with the part of the world where they stand. Design of Petronas Twin Towers is based on the transformation of simple but elegant Islamic geometric principles, Taipei 101 recalls the traditions of Asian pagoda architecture even as the Burj Dubai incorporates motifs from traditional Arabic art, reflecting the cultural influences of their environment.

For current rankings of skyscrapers by height, see List of tallest buildings in the world.

The following list measures height of the roof. The more common gauge is the highest architectural detail; such ranking would have included Petronas Towers, built in 1998. See List of tallest buildings in the world for details.

Built	Building	City	Country	Roof		Floors	Pinnacle		Current status
1873	Equitable Life Building	New York	United States	142 ft	43 m	8			Demolished
1889	Auditorium Building	Chicago	United States	269 ft	82 m	17	349 ft	106 m	Standing
1890	New York World Building	New York City	United States	309 ft	94 m	20	349 ft	106 m	Demolished
1894	Manhattan Life Insurance Building	New York City	United States	348 ft	106 m	18			Demolished
1899	Park Row Building	New York City	United States	391 ft	119 m	30			Standing
1901	Philadelphia City Hall	Philadelphia	United States	511 ft	155.8 m	9	548 ft	167 m	Standing
1908	Singer Building	New York City	United States	612 ft	187 m	47			Demolished
1909	Met Life Tower	New York City	United States	700 ft	213 m	50			Standing
1913	Woolworth Building	New York City	United States	792 ft	241 m	57			Standing
1930	40 Wall Street	New York City	United States			70	927 ft	283 m	Standing
1930	Chrysler Building	New York City	United States	925 ft	282 m	77	1,046 ft	319 m	Standing
1931	Empire State Building	New York City	United States	1,250 ft	381 m	102	1,472 ft	449 m	Standing
1972	World Trade Center (North tower)	New York City	United States	1,368 ft	417 m	110	1,727 ft	526.3 m	Destroyed
1974	Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower)	Chicago	United States	1,451 ft	442 m	108	1,729 ft	527 m	Standing
2003	Taipei 101	Taipei City	Taiwan	1,474 ft	448 m	101	1,671 ft	509 m	Standing
2009	Burj Dubai	Dubai	United Arab Emirates	2,684 ft	818 m	162	2,684 ft	818 m	Incomplete

Source: emporis.com

Today

Today, skyscrapers are an increasingly common sight where land is scarce, as in the centres of big cities, because they provide such a high ratio of rentable floor space per unit area of land. But they are built not just for economy of space. Like temples and palaces of the past, skyscrapers are considered symbols of a city's economic power. Not only do they define the skyline, they help to define the city's identity.

Supertall towers

An interesting phenomena in the design of tall buildings has emerged recently in the Middle East, with new, extremely challenging proposals for supertall towers of heights exceeding one kilometer, such as Nakheel Tower^[31], to be built in Dubai of the United Arab Emirates. With its announcement, the developer, Nakheel, intends to overtake the tallest structure in the world currently under construction in the same city of Dubai: the Burj Dubai. Other supertall towers are also proposed as new iconic buildings in the Middle East such as The Mile Tower to be built in Jeddah, KSA^[32][33] and Burj Mubarak Al Kabir in Kuwait. These distinctively supertall towers are different from what have been normally identified as skyscrapers, as they create exceptional challenges and, arguably, represent a new architectural paradigm.^[34]

Future skyscrapers

The following skyscrapers are either approved or due to be completed in the near future:

• Construction of the Burj Dubai is underway in Dubai. Its exact height is expected to be 818 m (2,684 ft) high, making it the tallest building in the world. The Burj Dubai is due to be completed in September 2009.^[35]

• Construction of the Pagcor Tower started in 2009, and when finished it will be the second tallest free-standing structure in the world with a height of 665 meters, it will be located in Manila bay near Mall of ASIA,by the project of PAGCOR.

• Construction of the Shanghai Tower started on 29 November 2008.^[36] The tower will be 632 m (2,073 ft) high and have 127 floors.^[37][38] The building will feature a glass curtain wall and nine indoor gardens when it is completed in 2014.^[39][40]

• Construction has started for a 610 m (2,001 ft) skyscraper in Chicago, estimated to be completed in 2012^[41]. The Chicago Spire, with 150 floors, will be the second tallest residential building in the world. Designed by Santiago Calatrava, it will also hold the title of North America's tallest free-standing structure.^[42]

• 1 World Trade Center is now under construction and is the tallest tower comprising the redevelopment of the site of the former World Trade Center following the attacks of September 11, 2001.^[43] Its antenna will reach a height of 541.4 m (1,776 ft),^[43] a height representing the year of the United States Declaration of Independence.

• The Port Tower is a building planned for Karachi, the financial capital of Pakistan, with the collaboration of local and foreign investors, in association with the Karachi Port Trust. When completed, the new structure will be 1,947 ft (593 m) high. The height of the tower has a special significance, representing the year Pakistan gained independence.

• The 308 m (1,010 ft) Tour Generali in Paris La Défense, scheduled to be completed in 2013,^[44] is an entirely green building office skyscraper that is set to be the tallest building in Paris and the second tallest in the European Union after the Shard of Glass in London.^[44]

• Construction of the London Bridge Tower, also known as the Shard of Glass, started in March 2009, and is scheduled to be completed in May 2012, in time for the London Olympics.^[45][46]. At 310 m (1,017 ft), it is set to be the tallest building in London, the United Kingdom and the tallest in the European Union.^[47]

Sustainability

The skyscraper as a concept is a product of the industrialized age, made possible by cheap energy and raw materials. The amount of steel, concrete and glass needed to construct a skyscraper is vast, and these materials represent a great deal of embodied energy. Tall skyscrapers are very heavy, which means that they must be built on a sturdier foundation than would be required for shorter, lighter buildings. Building materials must also be lifted to the top of a skyscraper during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower heights. Furthermore, a skyscraper consumes a lot of electricity because potable and non-potable water must be pumped to the highest occupied floors, skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated, elevators are generally used instead of stairs, and natural lighting cannot be utilized in rooms far from the windows and the windowless spaces such as elevators, bathrooms and stairwells.

Despite these costs, the size of skyscrapers allows for high-density work and living spaces, reducing the amount of land given over to human development. Mass transit and commercial transport are economically and environmentally more efficient when serving high-density development than suburban or rural development. Also, the total energy expended towards waste disposal and climate control is relatively lower for a given number of people occupying a skyscraper than that same number of people occupying modern housing.^{[citation needed]} However the city of Paris has almost the population density of Manhattan, despite having just a few tall buildings.

Quotations

"What is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? It is lofty. It must be tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line."

—Louis Sullivan's The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered (1896)